Explain the difference between rule

Explain the difference between rule, act and preference utilitarianism (25 marks) Utilitarianism is the ethical theory behind Justifying an action for being for the greater good. This is a teleological theory because it looks at the consequences of an action. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory. There are three types of utilitarianism: Act, Rule and Preference. Jeremy Bentham began the Utilitarianism theory. Utilitarianism is a hedonistic theory because it is based on pleasure and happiness. Each utilitarian has a different theory of Utilitarianism and this will be explained in my essay.First there was Jeremy Bentham the one to think of the Utilitarianism theory. Bentham was an act Utilitarian. Bentham was interested in the principle of utility, this is the theory of usefulness that suggests that an action is right if it brings the greatest happiness for the greatest number. He developed his ethical system based on ancient hedonism, which perused physical pleasure and avoided physical pain. Bentham believed that a moral act is one that maximises pleasure and minimises pain. From this Jeremy Bentham invented something called the ‘hedonic calculus' this was his way of measuring the good and bad of an action.Bentham said: the principle of utility aims to promote happiness, which is the supreme ethical value†¦ An act is right if it delivers more pleasure than pain and wrong if it brings about more pain than pleasure. ‘ To help people choose what would have the best possible consequence, Bentham provided a way of measuring it. This is the ‘hedonic calculus'. There are seven elements: the intensity of the pleasure; the duration of the pleasure; the certainty of the pleasure; the remoteness of the pleasure; the chance of succession of pleasures; the purity of the pleasure and lastly he extent of the pleasure.Bentham invented this to help people weigh up and measure how much pleasure an action will produce. Bentham was interested in the à ¢â‚¬Ëœgreatest good for the greatest number' and therefore his theory is quantitative. Bentham's view is described as Act Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarianism is Eudemonistic because actions are based on the happiness it brings; Consequentialist because the consequences an action will bring about and also Act Utilitarianism is measurable (by the hedonic calculus) and also quantitative because its based on the ‘greatest umber'.Act Utilitarianism is teleological because it aims to maximise the pleasure of the majority and has an end aim. Act Utilitarianism is also relative due to the fact that there is no notion of absolute right or wrong. On the other hand, Stuart Mill didn't agree with Bentham's Act Utilitarianism. Mill stressed that happiness was more important than pleasure. Mill said: ‘The Greatest promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness'. Here Mill is suggesting that happiness is the importance when looking at a moral action. Something that Mill also criticised about Bentham's view was the quantitative emphasis.Mill thought that actions should be measured in a qualitative way instead of quantitative way. Mill was interested in the quality of the pleasure. Mill looked at intellectual pleasures such as reading poetry and not pleasures such as eating or having sex. To add, Mill thought about the difference between animal pleasure and human pleasure. He said: ‘ It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied†¦ ‘ Furthermore, Mill suggested that in order to derive the principle of the greatest appiness for the greatest number we should have a principle of universality.Mill believed that we need moral rules to produce social order and Justice these rules should be followed universally. Mill was therefore seen as a Rule Utilitarian. Rule Utilitarianism is Consequentialist as is Act Utilitarianism; Rule Utilitarianism is Universalistic and also qualitative. Rule Utilitarianism is deont ological due to the fact that rules take priority. It is also relative because actions are based on the maximisation of pleasure for a particular society where the rules are used.Contrasting to Act and Rule Utilitarianism there is Preference Utilitarianism; this is the most recent form of Utilitarianism. R. M. Hare, Peter Singer and Richard Brandt all have different views though they are all Preference Utilitarianists. Preference Utilitarian's Judge moral actions according to whether they fit in with the preferences of the individuals involved. R. M Hare's approach argues that when making the decision on whether an action is right or wrong we must consider our own preferences and those of others. Hare said: ‘equal preferences count equally, whatever their content'.One problem is that sometimes people's preferences may clash therefore Hare suggested that we should ‘stand in someone else's shoes' and try to imagine what they would prefer. Hare thinks that people should tre at other with impartiality and he argues for universalisability. Peter Singer was also a Preference Utilitarian though he suggests that we should take the viewpoint of an impartial spectator. Singer said: ‘our own preferences cannot count any more than the preferences of others' and so, in acting morally, we should take account of all the people affected by our actions.

Paradigm in Nursing Essay

Nursing as any science is a tentative, testable and falsifiable discipline. It undergoes: empirical observation, hypothesis development, experiment, results/finding and finally conclusion. Basing on the finding, one can accept or reject the hypothesis. Theory has been seen as the model of the ethics of conducting a set up and while forth is in position to predict future occurrences or observations of the same kind and capable of being tested through experiment or otherwise verified through observation. Each theory has set principles on how to verify it known as paradigm. Discussion Paradigms are a set of postulations; practices shared by a particular body, say a community of researchers and stems from a single theme. The paradigm seeks to regulate inquiry into the discipline that is concerned. It can therefore be viewed as the norm which the scientists or researchers can use as platform which they can agree of disagree depending on their findings. The various paradigms have one thing in common. They are characterized by ontological, epistemological and methodological differences in their approaches to conducting research (Demarest, et al 1993). This in return contributes to paradigm shift. Paradigm is seen to supersede mere interpretation of the tabulated finding or basic understanding in general. Superstition of paradigm consequently gives varied contribution in the area of disciplinary knowledge construction. Depending on the researchers sentiments/he may consider these differences so vast that one paradigm is inequivalent to another. Alternatively, these differences may be ignored or combined so as to conduct the research needed. To accomplish the task of developing nursing knowledge for use in practice, there is a need for a critical, integrated understanding of the paradigms used for nursing inquiry. This is arising due to the fact that each paradigm has a shift (Demarest, et al 1993). For instance, Child development defects will be viewed from various aspects and hence differing paradigm. A biologist my evaluate child development in perspective that children will naturally gain knowledge as they physically grow and become older, provided that they are healthy. Others may view that the child gains knowledge depending on its surrounding or what it interact with; while others view that a child is due for school after it starts interacting with environment and people as well. A nurse scholar can thus decide to combine the three theories or ignore all to achieve what s/he is researching on. Conclusion In conclusion the nurse researcher should weigh the pros and cons of a particular paradigm in his/her approach to assess of existing knowledge and thereby fill the informational gaps. This is because dominance of a particular paradigm is influenced by a number of factors. These may include: the source of finance for the research, government influence, biases from the journal and editors of the print, conferences and symposiums held, coverage by the media, educators who are responsible of spreading the paradigm to their students as well as the professional bodies which may favor a particular paradigm. However, paradigm should be natural and operational in all times.

Should violent images and language be censored or banned from national Essay

Should violent images and language be censored or banned from national media - Essay Example adays, parents have to sneak into the room every now and then to make sure that their innocent child is protected from the impacts of evil forces trying to reach their child through video games. This may also have a negative impact on the parent-child relationship in which the parent has to spy on the child. This may, for the least, inculcate curiosity in the child’s mind regarding the spying parent. In extreme circumstances, the child may become violent and abuse the parent and force him/her out of the room. Even if all the deleterious effects of incorporating sexuality and violence in the video games are overlooked, the fact that these factors are incorporated into the video games on the cost of their quality can not be ignored. Video game makers that do not have a nice strategy in mind for the plot or theme of the game may still have their product do good business in the market by making the audience attracted towards the violence or sexuality incorporated therein. In this sense, makers of such video games are essentially committing the crime of tarnishing the image of video games in the public’s eye. A vast majority of the proponents of violence and sexuality in video games suggest that access to such games should be allowed after a certain age limit. They emphasize that this is a useful way to prevent the minds of innocent children to go wild before they physically mature up. But this argument is totally flawed. Although it apparently seems an easy way to end the debate, yet anyone with the desire to curtail sexuality and violence in the video games can easily challenge this argument for several reasons. This is because of the fact that age restrictions when placed upon something play a fundamental role in making that thing a social taboo, and taboos often happen to be the biggest adventures for juveniles and adolescents to explore. The idea of placing age restrictions on the violent video games makes them all the more exciting and appealing for the

Green Attitude Leads To Green Action Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Green Attitude Leads To Green Action - Case Study Example People find it difficult in differentiating what waste product can be recycled and which cannot. Taking the initiative to act green is quite a difficult task. 2) Incentives can be necessary to alter consumer behavior that is related to reusing and recycling. The advantage of this is that a lot of plastics and non degradable material can be reused and recycled. This can also save on a lot of expenses that might have been incurred. However, the disadvantage of this method is people may not get the sense of conserving the environment and put more focus of obtaining the incentive. People may focus on the incentive and not see the sense of protecting the environment. 3) As a green living consultant, I would advice Madhu to increase her awareness on electricity use. She should try to minimize on the use through turning any application off when not in use. She should also reduce driving the car for short distance that she can walk. This will help to reduce carbon emissions. Plant a tree to provide shade or start a garden because this will cut down on cost of buying vegetables (Kocsis, 2010). 4) I can help Madhu find organizations that provide an eco friendly seals of approval for household’s items like grocery purchase. This includes agencies like green seal which ensure that everything you buy has a green seal. There are sites on the internet like Eco friendly shopping. com and eco friendly products. com. The Green Seal TM is also a nonprofit organization that I will recommend for

Care Delivery and Care Management in Nursing Case Study

Care Delivery and Care Management in Nursing - Case Study Example (Kurtzman and Corrigan, 2007, 20-36). This patient, Mr. John Smith has mental disability. Maintenance of Safe Environment: The nurse plans therapeutic interventions for clients with actual or potential risks for safety based on the nursing assessment of the risks and a development of a care plan for the specific client through a process called nursing process (Scott-Cawiezell and Vogelsmeier, 2006, p. 179-215). Nursing Process: The Roper et al. model for nursing offers a framework where during care, the nurse is able to ensure that his individuality is taken adequate care of and provided due weightage. The Roper-Logan-Tierney model recommends a problem-solving approach in the nursing process (Roper, Logan, and Tierney, 1983, 17-19). Deriving from this, nursing process can be defined as a systematic approach to planning and delivering nursing care. This process comprises of four main stages, namely, assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation. After the problem is determined, the nurse can then assess the needs of the patient. Depending on the needs, a plan of care is developed, depending on which the nurse can determine nursing goals. Once the goal is set, the chosen nursing care strategies can then be implemented, after which, it is also important to evaluate the care process, since any gap can be rectified through evaluation (Roper, Logan, and Tierney, 1983, 17-19). Assessment: Assessment is a cyclica... Smith. His main and actual problem was that he was unable to maintain his own internal and external safe environment due to his confused and impaired cognitive state. Rate of breathing, pattern of chest movement, presence of cyanosis, and pulse oximetry are important steps of assessment. It is important to remain aware that if needed, oxygen needs to be prescribed. Neurological assessment needed to be undertaken to assess the state of confusion and cognition. The aggression was also needed to be assessed. A safe external environment needed to be assessed by positioning of Mr. John Smith on bed, protective devices, and his own mobility. Apart from these, it was also important to assess whether all equipment for emergency care was within reach and was in working order. These included oxygen, suction apparatus, emergency trolley and resuscitation kit (Lesa and Dixon, 2007, 166-172). Identification of the Actual and Potential Problems: While assessing Mr. Smith, his actual and potential problems were prioritized. He was elderly with confusion and memory loss. Therefore, he was dependent for his care and needs. His religious and spiritual needs were also important parts of the assessment. His most important need was his care needs in terms of safety. Once his respiratory safety was ensured, his other actual problems were identified. He was having a problem with mobility due to age and confused state. This would call for positioning in the bed, safety arrangements in the bed and bed to chair mobility. Due to bed-ridden condition, he might have pressure sore or deep vein thrombosis (Roper, Logan, and Tierney, 1983, 43-44). Independent movement was also unsafe. He could end up having falls that is a safety risk. He was having aggression that

Meat Production Business in Ukraine Research Paper

Meat Production Business in Ukraine - Research Paper Example This paper considers Ukrainian meat market. It outlines such aspects as poultry, pork, beef, etc. In case of threats of new entrance, it can be asserted that the meat processing industry has faced a very few challenges from the relative nations and other industry. This research study seems to be analytical in nature since its objective lay in investigating the loopholes prevailing in the meat sector in Ukrainian market and recommending measures that will address the same. A research philosophy refers to the preferred approach, which applied by the researcher in search of knowledge, establishing the nature of the problem and its context. Here, the existence of the problem, knowledge, values and reason has been clearly delineated (Beck, 2003). This research will be based on a positivism type of paradigm. This is the school of contemplation, which advocates for reality and objectivity (Caulley, 2007). The purpose of a research based on positivism is to find causal liaison between variables through deductive reasoning to estimate probabilities and make predictions. The problem of shortage in supply of red meat in Ukrainian market is identified to be quite real and likewise demand real answers. The only framework, which can ensure the same, is positivism approach. Through objectivity, which is duly considered to be an indispensable component of positivism, valid answers can be derived from the research (Ellingson, 2007). If compared with other research philosophies and paradigms such as realism and interpretivism, positivism clearly offers the flexibility and the clarity of procedures based on which this particular type of research can be conducted efficiently.

Torts and Product Liability Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Torts and Product Liability - Research Paper Example Chris missed breakfast because they had to leave the house very early in the morning to the airport. After dropping Jim at the airport, the two (Stella and Chris) went to the McDonald’s drive-through for the breakfast. Stella ordered a McBreakfast and Chris her grandson, parked the car so that she could add sugar and cream to her coffee (Buchholtz and Carroll, 2008). She could not add the cream and sugar because there was no flat surface in the car where she could place the coffee cup and get the lid off. As an alternative, she placed the coffee cup between her knees and tried to get the coffee cup lid that way. As she tried to remove the lid, hot coffee spilled onto her lap (Buchholtz and Carroll, 2008). Chris got out of the car to help her; he pulled her sweat suit twisting it as the coffee (170 degrees) burned her inner thigh, buttocks, and groin. She was taken to the hospital and upon arrival at the emergency room; she was confirmed to have sustained third-degree burns. Stella spent a week in the hospital and three weeks at home nursing her injuries with the help of her daughter, Nancy Tiano (Buchholtz and Carroll, 2008). After a while, she was hospitalized again for skin grafts and during that period she lost around 20 pounds and at times she was practically immobilized. Though she was not willing to sue McDonald, her family was of the opinion that she had to be compensated for the out-of-pocket expenses and her daughter’s lost wages for the time she had stayed with her at home (Buchholtz and Carroll, 2008). On May 2005, Pearson took his pants to the Custom Cleaners for alterations. Roy Pearson was at that time the newly appointed Washington, DC administrative law judge. Pearson owned five expensive Hickey Freeman suits which he wore one for every day of the week. The pants had become uncomfortable and thus he took them to the local dry cleaning service (Custom Cleaners).

Television Addict by Marie Winn Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Television Addict by Marie Winn - Assignment Example She first gives the pleasurable symptoms of television addiction, and confirms the same through a sample individual confession. In the essay, she also gives various examples of how significant television addiction influences peoples lives in more negative ways that commonly imagined by the victims themselves; an indication of how the victims sense of reality. In explicit statements, she is categorical that addicts tend to ignore all other productive activities in order to stay put in front of their screens, to which they cannot master enough strength to turn off for countless. The thesis statement of the easy can, therefore, be stated as follows: Television experience is as serious enough as any other addictions of hard drugs, for they not only activate pleasurable effects that inactive mental state of reality, but does well to destroy an individual’s worth through withdrawal from being objective in life. The author switches from discussing addiction in general terms to talking specifically about addiction to television in paragraph six. She, in fact, informs the reader more directly by stating clearly what follows in the very paragraph, that: â€Å"Let us consider television viewing in the light of the conditions that define serious addictions.† Indeed right after the statement, Winn jumps straight away to the symptoms of television viewing that makes it an addiction like those of alcohol or other drugs. To be certain, she argues that television viewing distorts the victim’s sense of reality, forcing the participant into a passive world of pleasurable mental state, to which they completely have no control over. From the point on, the author talks specifically to the readers over television addiction, more particularly with regards to the Vitim’s control ability to limit hours spent in front of television screens. Marie follows her discussion of the symptoms of television addiction with a sample

The understanding of modern urban life and the place of a man in Essay

The understanding of modern urban life and the place of a man in modern city - Essay Example In this work Simmel underlined that in conditions of modern city and urban society an individual can successfully develop his skills and abilities, as the economical and political situation of modern and post-modern community promotes individual freedom and flexibility. Simmel underlined that "the city conspires to erase difference by assaulting the individual with an overwhelming and never-ending stream of visual stimuli" (Byram, 2002). This vision is inherent to the spacing theory of scientific rationalism, modern and post-modern experience that fills the space with giant cubic forms suppressing the consciousness of people and their freedom. In Simmel's opinion, our society consists of individuals who interact with each other, and this interacting forms features and specificity of our society: "While there is no perception of society until individuals begin to interact, once formed by the interaction of individuals, the society affects the individuals as an outside force" (Crow Ch. , et al., 2000). Benjamin considered modern urban experience and a new politics of vision through the development of technologies. He underlined that "because of mechanical reproduction, art loses its authenticity. Simmel also underlined that metropolis allows individuals to develop their freedom and art. But in the other hand, Simmel asserted that post-modern urban spirit threats individuality (see above). As well as Simmel, Benjamin had positive attitude to communications development: "Benjamin is positive about new technologies, emphasizing their liberating, democratising influences. Simmel gave more social approach to the communication technologies as interactions between people asserting that they form our society, but Benjamin wrote about the positive attitude to such technologies as film and photography: "New media technologies such as phonographs, epic theatre, and especially film and photography, not only destroy art's 'aura' but demystifies the process of creating art, making available rad ical new access and roles for art in mass culture" (Bicket, 2001). With the development of photography and film human perception is changed, and the understanding of modern and post-modern urban reality is also transformed. The paper has demonstrated two authors' positions on modern and post-modern urban experience and their attitude to mass media and technology development. Both Simmel and Benjamin underlined the importance of technological development and its influence on art, culture and our understanding of social environment. They underlined positive and negative approaches of modern and post-modern urban experience and explained the influence of urban life on people. Simmel's views are more approached to the negative and depressing influence of urban life on individuals, while those of Benjamin are more inclined to the positive perception of technological and cultural aspects of modern and pos

Your Hardships, and Memories in One Sentence Research Paper

Your Hardships, and Memories in One Sentence - Research Paper Example The discontent that forms after reading a story that does not read like the old once upon a time, conflict-filled, and plotted story crops up as a result of an utter dissimilarity from the way old stories are formatted. Certainly, this is not a just a mere gimmick that tends to sell modern books because there is a staggering reality in this observation: there is a difference on how old and modern stories are written. According to Bader (87), old stories are heavily based on plot. There are two observations in the manner in which old stories are written: (1) the plot dominates the entire content of the story; the progression or turns of events are strongly based on the plot and they incline to circulate around a singular model – conflict, action, resolution – from cover to cover; or (2) the plot is dominated by other elements such as conflict, theme or character. These three may dominate plot altogether; nevertheless, it is common that a single element dominates the plot in the totality of the story. Conflict in this regard has two kinds: internal or external. It is important to note the difference between the two because this is where a careless reader is often convinced that the story is plot-less, static or amorphous, which should not be the case considering that the point is supposed to be conceived lies upon how aware the reader is the technicalities involved in writing and arranging a story. An internal conflict is something that exists within the character himself – this may be defined as a personal dilemma or ambivalence over something that needs to be decided, recounted, or confronted. On the other hand, external conflict is a more common sort: it is something that physically – either directly or indirectly; subtly or apparently affect the characters of the story. For instance, stories that are based on childhood abuse: the conflict could be the physical violence that the main character or other characters in the story suffer from his or her oppressors. External conflicts can be very sensitive and straightforward. Modern stories do not employ plot significantly; at least, according to the knowledge of the modern story avid. Modern stories are strongly founded on realism – everything is based on what really happens in real life. Modern story writers contend that a plot is unreal, artificial (87). One possible reason for this argument is that plot makes for a contrived, made-up progression that is hard to believe because it does not simply reflect the realities of life. Modern story writers also argue that old stories’ lavish use of plots tend to sentimentalize the reality (88). In other words, the backbone of the story is drawn from a detached understanding of what really exist in real life to a point that it becomes so inconsistent of which is believable and truly convincing. Modern stories use new techniques that create a more realistic and more interesting, thought-provoking way of deliv ering narratives: (1) modern stories employ a stricter limitation of the subject; and (2) method of indirection. Bader (88) believes that â€Å"the modern writer’s desire for realism causes him to focus on the limited moment of time or a limited area of action in order that it may be fully explored and understood.† While modern writers believe that plots are artificial, it does not mean that they do not use them. Modern writers still use plot in creating their stories; nevertheless, they employ them with less complication in order to give way to modern subtlety. Jamaica Kincaid’s Girl is one intriguing poetic art. At first read, it is quite difficult to decipher if it uses plot or not but eventually any reader would find that it all revolves in a less-complicated plot: to-do-list and how-to-do list. One

Parenting Techniques and Their Influences on Their Child’s Behavior and Habits Essay Example for Free

Parenting Techniques and Their Influences on Their Child’s Behavior and Habits Essay Parenting techniques and beliefs are essential to the growth of any child. Parents instill habits, behaviors, and moral sense in to their children at an early age. Children benefit when parents engage themselves in to their child’s life. In saying that, parents also have to learn to adapt to what their child needs and teach them to assert themselves and become independent. Habits children pick up are usually either picked up from their parents or tolerated by their parents. It is the parent’s responsibility to assess what is right for their child and correct any bad habits they may learn along the way. Socioeconomic status is a huge factor in how a topic of parenting techniques can be studied. Any subject pertaining to parenting style and their influences can be linked to their social class. I will focus most of my discussion on the effects of overall parenting techniques and how socioeconomic factors and be linked to those techniques. Keywords: parenting styles, socioeconomic status, children Parenting Techniques and Their Influences on Their Child’s Behavior and Habits. Parenting techniques are a very important factor in the development of children. Children learn from an early age their moral senses, the behaviors and habits that are acceptable, and they develop an understanding on what role their actions can play in their life. Parenting along with socioeconomic status and culture are great determining factors in understanding how a child has learned from their parents and what to expect from that particular child. Parents evolve their parenting techniques as they learn how their child naturally behaves and as the child learns from what the parents have instilled. In the study conducted by Rubin, Nelson, Hastings, and Asendorpf (1999), the primary purpose was to investigate the relations between a child’s social inhibitions and the parent’s beliefs on how to best socialize their child. The study determined that both the mother and father tend to follow their child’s dispositional cues on how they should be socialized. The parents would adapt to how the child reacted in a social situation. For example, if the child exhibited shyness, they would alter how they went about socializing. In this study, I agree that parents do evolve with their children and with an agreed upon authoritative style of parenting, both the father and mother would act accordingly to what the study found. The study was a longitudinal study but only followed up once after the initial results; I believe the study would have been more effective had it been followed up until at the least early childhood. In terms of diversity, I feel this study could have been greatly improved upon. Differences may or may not occur between different cultures and races, but the researchers chose not to delve into any demographic exploration on the topic. The socioeconomic status of the parents could also have an effect on how they were able to socialize their child. If the family was from the working-class, they may not have time to socialize their children as effectively. Many factors could have made this study more effective in determining the socialization of the child and the parents’ influences. Children also take after their parents behaviors. Eating habits in children may be partly due to genetic dispositions but are greatly impacted by their environment and the behaviors they are being taught. Birch and Fisher’s (1998) main concern in their study was that childhood obesity was not just simply linked to genetic factors but also environmental factors. The risk of a child becoming obese with two obese parents is very high, opposed to having non-obese parents. This is due to the child following the bad eating habits of the parents. Genes and environment are highly correlated because they are both typically provided by parents. Obese parents would need to acknowledge that there might be an issue and act on it accordingly and instill good eating habits to their children. The researchers of this study also chose not to cover any demographic characteristics such as age or socioeconomic factors. A longitudinal study exhibiting ages when a child learns eating habits and gaining weight would improve the study. Socioeconomic status could also play a large role in what the child had available to eat. In many studies, it is said that many lower or working class families struggle with obesity due to the lack of funds to get healthier foods. Social status would also explain if the parents were not there to monitor what the child was eating. This would affect a lot of qualities in the study had it been chosen to be covered. Differences between race and social classes have been studied for many decades. In an article by Bodovski (2010), she stated that Lareau (2003) examined how socioeconomic status and race backgrounds influenced how parents raised their children and how the children benefited academically. The social class in which a family is raised shapes their values, behavior, and explains what they have available as resources. Middle-class and upper-middle-class families actively reinforce their involvement in their child’s learning and socialization. This social class has a wide array of opportunities to expose their children to including sports, art, dance, and many other extracurricular activities. Middle-class families also encourage their children to stand up for themselves through example and therefore the children learn cultural codes and behaviors that facilitate their achievement (Lareau, 2003). Lower-class and working-class families feel their primary responsibility to their children is taking care of their needs, such as housing, food, and clothing (Bodovski, 2010). These children usually socialize with other family members and their nearby community rather than participate in extracurricular activities. Typically, working-class families experience more hesitancies in asserting themselves and their children also learn these behaviors. Lareau (2003) did not find significant racial differences in parenting styles once social class differences between families were taken into consideration (Bodovski, 2010). This study was very well diversified. It focused predominately on socioeconomic status which is a large factor in how well a parent will have accessibility to resources for their children and it also explains how much time the children are around their parents. The study also features race and explained that there were no significant differences. Late-elementary school children were studied along with their parents, which I believe is a good age range to focus on for an effective study. These articles are just a few facets on how parents influence and teach their children. Overall, when looking at parenting techniques, it is always important to look at socioeconomic status and how the parents can adapt to their children’s needs.

Cost Management in the Fast Food Industry

Cost Management in the Fast Food Industry The Fast food organization which the researcher intends to carry out research is owned by a leading fast food brand ÂÂ  it is the worlds largestÂÂ  fast foodÂÂ  restaurant company in terms of system units-over 36,000 restaurants around the world in more than 110 countries and territories. In 2008, its globalÂÂ  salesÂÂ  totaled more thanÂÂ  US$11 billion was created on October 7, 1997, asÂÂ  Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc. This organization is a world wide operator and franchisor of a broad portfolio of fast food restaurants. The head quarters of this organization are in United States. It has a wide range of brands:- The researcher is going to research on the Pizza Hut, as it is the prime brand . 1.1 Cost Control Generating revenue is the main aim of an organization. The maximum use of resources with least expenses is cost control. Cutting costs is the simplest way to improve your bottom line. Introducing a cost control system can bring immediate savings and ensure that you remain competitive in the longer term. But cost control needs to be carefully managed. While eliminating wasteful activities is clearly beneficial, indiscriminate cost cutting can lead to falling quality and poor morale. According to (Clement Ojugo ,2003) cost control means steps taken by management to assure that the cost objectives set down in the planning stage are attained and to assure that all segments of the organization function in a manner consistent with its policies. For effective cost control, most organizations useÂÂ  standard cost systemÂÂ  , in which the actual costs are compared against standard costs for performance evaluation and the deviations are investigated for remedial actions. Cost control is also concerned with feedback that might change any or all of the future plans, the production method, or both. (Michael M, 2001) defines; cost accountingÂÂ  establishes budget and actual cost of operations, processes, departments or product and the analysis of variances, profitability or social use of funds. Managers use cost accounting to support decision-making to cut a companysÂÂ  costsÂÂ  and improve profitability. Importance of cost control in Fast -Food Industry. The operations cost in a fast-food organization depends upon how accurately the costing strategies are applied. If the cost control strategies are applied with-out considering the operational side of the organization it will have negative results on revenue. According to (Ismail A, 2001) successful cost control strategies require inventory data updated. Author suggest best practice, cost control depends upon Frequency and timeliness of inventory which means daily business reports, weekly trading reports and monthly reporting. According to (Talyn. L, 2001) because food cost is usually one of the highest cost percentages in any establishment, it is important to know how to calculate it.ÂÂ  Whether it is a steak and seafood restaurant, a family restaurant, a pub or a martini bar, it is very important to know what the total food cost is. Author says that if the food cost is not learnt or pre calculated then the end result would be a lack or lose control over the food cost giving higher losses in return. According to (Jagels.M, 2007) the implementation of cost control has number of advantages. Quantify future plans: the cost control process compels operational managers to look ahead and follow the strategies applied by the cost controller. This identifies the shortfalls in sales and resources and provides the opportunity for measures to be implemented to overcome the difficulties. Set revenue objectives and targets: the cost control process provides the opportunity to set targets to reduce operational expenditure. The restaurants cost control is dependent on the operational staff. Communicate objectives: the cost control system provides a formal opportunity for higher level managers at divisional regional levels to set targets based on the long term objectives of the organization. Control business performance: the process provides a standard based on expected revenues and costs to which actual performance can be compared. Variance between fixed cost and variable cost identifies the o pportunity to maximize profits. (Wood.R, 2008) looks at cost control with a very practical approach. (Woods R, 2008) says that costing process in its entirely time consuming and therefore costly in terms of management time and resources. (Woods. R, 2008) argues that the cost and time involved are not justifiable because the end result is based on many unknown factors and the actual performance will almost certainly be different. This criticism needs to be considered in the advantages of the cost control system, because it forces managers to consider all relevant factors likely to affect their business and plan for the effective use of resources, and this requires both an internal and an external analysis. THE RATIONALE According to ( Cohen.L, 2000) rational is sensible reason to conduct a research study. The researcher finds fast food field interesting because of the researcher is presently in the same field. This research will help the researcher learn the fast food organization cost control strategies. The organization is fast food sector have different kind of budgets like Material, capital, operation strategies. To solve the problem of high cost and generate maximum profit. The researcher is working in the fast food industry which researcher wishes to research. The main concern in this industry is to serve people and have 100% customer satisfaction. In order to present the best of amenities, facilities and infrastructure to the guest the organization has to make some expenses which have to be planned and aligned with the help of cost control strategies from the revenues generated. 3. RESEARCH QUESTION This research is designed to answer the question Is the Fast- Food industry able to control cost and maximize profit? According to (Jagels.M, 2007) it is difficult task because of pilferage, lack of training to the new staff, adherence to standard recipe, perishables, etc should be considered while applying cost control strategies. According to(Ralston.C, 2004) fast food operations are people oriented and people driven, it is more difficult to effectively automate and control food costs than in any other non business organization. The costs in fast food operations are fixed cost but the sales revenue are totally unpredictable. With the above mentioned statements it can be considered that cost control is a difficult task in fast food industry. There for importance of cost control can be clear seen . Considering the details wastage details affecting the sales revenue will make perfect cost control for an organization. 4. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS According to (Maxwell.J, 2005) a research hypothesis is the statement created by a researcher when they speculate upon the outcome of a research or experiment. The researcher here tries to assume that, those fast food organizations having a low food cost and higher profit are having the superior cost control strategies. In addition, those fast food organizations having a perfect cost control will be more profitable when compared to that fast food organization who often fumbles in cost control system. 5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES According to ( Hussey.J, 1997) the underlying and overriding aims and purposes of a research or analysis exercise that is, what researcher specifically want to find out. The main aim of this research is to understand the cost control strategies in the fast food organization using costing as a tool The research objectives can be summarized as follows: To gain knowledge on how to do cost control To identify the cost control strategy in fast food organization. To analyze the importance of cost control in fast food organization, which contributes in keeping expenses in control and increase revenues. To develop a list of best practices of successful strategies, which controls the cost and helps in maximizing revenue? 6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY According to (Zikmund.W, 2006) Methodology includes a philosophically coherent collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry. According to (Klein and Myers, 1999) Methodology refers to more than a simple set of methods; rather it refers to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie to particular study. 7. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH According to (Creswell. J , ) a quantitative approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses post positivist claims for developing knowledge i.e. cause effect thinking, reduction to specific variables and hypothesis and questions, use of measurement and observation, and the test of theories. Employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and collects data on predetermine instruments that yield statistical data. The research approach will be deductive to bring out the best result of research findings. The researcher emphasizes on the cost control strategies of fast food organization so the nature of the methodology will be post positivist knowledge claims, experimental strategy of inquiry. According to ( Teddlie C 1998) quantitative research includes substantial amount of literature at the beginning of a study to provide direction for the research question or hypothesis. In planning quantitative study the literature is often used at the beginning of a study to introduce a problem or to describe in detail the existing literature in a section titled review of literature. In addition literature is also included a the end of a study which the researcher compares the results of the study with the existing findings in the literature. The research will be carried out keeping the research question in focus. There will be interviews and questionnaires. (Bryman et al 2008) suggest that a researcher should give respondents the closed ended questions where there is limited choice of possible answers. The researcher plans to give limited choice of answers but also at the same time open questions will be included in order to collect accurate and as much as possible information required in conducting the research. 8. RESEARCH METHODS AÂÂ  deductive argument is anÂÂ  argument in which it is thought that the premises provide aÂÂ  guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would beÂÂ  impossible for the conclusion to be false. (Winch. W, 1913) The researcher decides to adapt the deductive method of research, as the nature research is quantitative. According to (Thomas R, 2003) quantitative research uses numbers and statistical methods. It tends to be based on nuerical measurements of specific aspects of phenomena, rather than theory and words. According to (Glesne and Peshkin, 1992) careful sampling strategies and experimental designs are aspects of quantitative methods aimed at produce generalizable results. The researcher intends to find out the cost control strategy by interviews and questionnaires etc. The interview will be conducted with top level managers who are involved in cost control. The survey participants will be all working in research related areas. The semi structured interviews may start with an organizational questionnaire to gain company information such as numbers of restaurants, average revenue/cost per cover etc. The aim of the interview will be to find out the way cost control strategies are implemented. The principles they adapt to maximize their profits. 9. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The researcher intends to perform the research in the organization where he is employed and therefore has been granted access to carry out the interviews and survey. In addition, it is believed that the researcher may require at least two more organizations to make a comparison of the cost control strategies and how are they implemented. The researcher is confident that he will be able to gain the required number of participating organizations in the research. Interviews: The researcher intends to conduct the research in the organization where he is employed. Hence to reach to the top level managers would not be a barrier. The interviews will be planned and organized well in advance, without disturbing the outlet operations. To make the most out of the interview of the managers, researcher plans to use some tools like spidogram, voice recording and collect relevant samples of past cost control if available. This will make the research more effective. According to (Zikmund.W, 2006) in an interview where is a face to face personal interaction between the interviewer and interviewee (respondent) has several benefits that help researcher obtain complete and precise information. The researcher highlights in gathering information through the interviews as face expression can be taken into consideration. (Zikmund.W, 2006) statement is very important as it is considered that 70% of the communication is a non verbal communication. Questionnaires: The researcher intends to prepare a questionnaire for the top level managers in operating department of an hospitality organization. Questionnaires will be based to find out different strategies, methods and plans made by top level managers. This will help the researcher in gaining knowledge about how the practical budgets are made compared to the theoretical. Survey: According to ( Vaus De D.A, 2002) a survey is not just a particular technique of collecting information; questionnaires are widely used but other techniques, such as structured and in-depth interviews, observation, content analysis and so forth, can also be used in survey research. The distinguishing features of surveys are the form of the data and the method of analysis. According to (Zikmund.W, 2006) the main purpose of surveys in research is to collect primary data, which is assembled specifically for the research. Survey is something asking people who are respondents for information using either verbal or written questions. It is better to conduct a survey in written form so that information can be kept as a record. 10. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validity: The researcher intends to use of multiple sources of evidence, structured interviews and questionnaires (both open and closed question). The design of questions and survey will be based on understanding the cost control strategies, the interview and questionnaire will be used to make sure questions are understood as intended. (Saunders,et al 2008). If allowed by the respondent the researcher also wishes to record the interviews for future. To generalize over two organizations the cost control strategies multiple theoretical methods will be considered. According to (Saunders, et al 2008) the structure of interview and questionnaires must be consistent and understandable to each individual. Reliability: According to (Bryman, et al 2008) a research can be reliable when there is stability. The research can be stable when results are stable. The result of group of people or individual must not fluctuate. There is stability in research when the same process is used with everyone. The way of questions and interview must be same. Surveys to back up the interviews, and obtain views from different organization managers, for better understanding and in depth knowledge of the subject. According to (Saunders et al 2008) the participants involved in should understand the research in a same way; they must me asked the same questions in same way. 11. RESEARCH ETHICS The top level managers in hospitality organizations where researcher intends to research will be given a clear written description of the purpose, scope, and intended outcomes of the research. The name of the participating three hospitality organizations and the participating top level managers in the research will be kept confidential. The information gathered during research about the organization will not be presented in dissertation for the confidentiality of the organization. The research is being carried out as a academic requirement and no other intentions. The interview questions and questionnaires will be designed to examine only the strategies of forecasting and budgeting, nothing apart from that. The research interviews, surveys, or questionnaire will not be aimed at finding any other information which is not related to this research. According to ( Klein and Myers, 1999) suggest to use a hidden agenda which ensure confidentiality of the participant organizations and the individual participants in the surveys. 12. TIME SCALE Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. ( Wallace.C, 1952) The plan for the research project timescale is shown in the GANNT CHART. A brief summary of time taken from presenting research proposal to dissertation is shown below. 13. BUDGET The researcher has spent about GBP40 to GBP50 approximately on preparing this research proposal.

Framework of research methodology

Framework of research methodology Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to describe the Framework of research methodology followed in this thesis in detail. The elaboration along with the discussion on various types of research will be discussed to explain the approach and methods for the presentation of research work. From the view point of many researchers that Research Methodology is a design process which consists of step by step approach leading towards the conclusion of substantial results. Based on different view point evaluation the researcher of this thesis project suggest that Research Methodology is just a design or step by step approach but its a complete frame work of components which consist of the following: Identify the problem Propagate the idea for possible solution / Brain Storming process Data Collection from the variable sources Evaluate the sample data Conclude the results Finalized the Theory In other words from one of the researcher provides his statements as â€Å"Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment work together to try to address the central research questions.† [http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/design.php] The Research Hypothesis Behind every research work there is certainly some hypothesis always involved, therefore in the same way there are many hypotheses are provided by the different researchers in various research papers about the research methodology, to provide elaboration under the light of those hypothesis the researcher has taken them over here as reference. â€Å"The research or scientific hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome, a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. For the hypothesis to be testable, the variables must be operationally defined. The is, the researcher specifies what operations were conducted, or tests used, to measure each variables. Thus the hypothesis focuses the investigation on a definite target and determines what observations or measures are to be used† [Research methodology: techniques and trends by Dr. Y.K Singh and Dr. R.B Bajpai Book] The philosophy of the research methodology is to achieve the desired results, for which it is necessary to adopt certain steps, which is also known as Frame work of study. There fore the development in the research can be done. Many Researchers have argued that these research hypotheses by the researcher includes those assumptions which should be vital and in which the researcher views the world so that these assumptions will support the researcher strategy and methods he selected as a part of that strategy. Where as the research can done in various ways , based on the requirements of the thesis projects, but to streamline and to get the most out come of the research there should be a frame work of the thesis has to be adopted. [Self] â€Å"Such philosophies are considered as a tool to find the best way of having research done, and these philosophies enable the researcher to get a well balance conclusion† [Stiles, J. (2003) ‘A Philosophical Justification for a Realist Approach Qualitative Market Research: An International journal, Volume 6, Number 04] The Aims and Objective The aims and objective of this research is to produce a document over a Meta analysis on GPON and EPON technologies with the questionnaire based surveys. For this purpose a customized methodology / framework has been adopted based on the standards provided by the researcher for this nature of work. Types of techniques There are two types of research pattern techniques provided by the researchers one is called Qualitative research and the second is called quantitative research. Sinuff et al. (2007, p.105) defined Qualitative research as â€Å"A Qualitative research offers descriptive models of behaviour, social organization, and social interaction that can be used to improve behaviour and experiences. It is well suited to exploratory investigations of problems which about little are known†. According to Amaratunga et al. (2002), qualitative approach concentrates on words and observations to find a conclusion and it also attempts to design the people in the social sciences. On other side, quantitative research mainly is based on the numbers that represents the opinions and concepts about the particular research. They further argued that the richness and holism of qualitative data can provide strong support for revealing complexities in research process. Furthermore, the information for qualitative research is normally collected over a longer period of time therefore it makes researching more broad. According to Amaratunga et al. (2002) quantitative research design has been considered as appropriate for examining the behavioural component. It has been concerned with measuring the true value of the propositions. It allows the flexibility in examining the data, in terms of statistical analysis, comparative analyses and repeatability of data collection for confirming validity of the research. [Amaratunga Dilanthi, Baldry David, Sarshar Marjan and Newton Rita (2002) ‘Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Built Environment: Application of â€Å"Mixed† Research Approach, Research Paper, 51(1): 17-31.] Web link: [http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContentItem.do;jsessionid=8AC83587644A027D31356889353AAD04?contentType=ArticlehdAction=lnkpdfcontentId=851373] Amaratunga et al. (2002) have summarized some of the strengths of quantitative research, which are shown as follows; Its process is quick and also economical. The subject under study is analyzed and observed independently. In quantitative research the comparison and replication is allowed. The reliability and validity can be obtained more objectively than the qualitative. In Quantitative research, data is collected from the large sample that may have a huge influence on the policy decisions. The subject under study is analyzed and observed by adopting the objective methods rather than just been focused on the subjectivity through sensation and reflection. [Amaratunga Dilanthi, Baldry David, Sarshar Marjan and Newton Rita (2002) ‘Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Built Environment: Application of â€Å"Mixed† Research Approach, Research Paper, 51(1): 17-31.] [http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContentItem.do;jsessionid=8AC83587644A027D31356889353AAD04?contentType=ArticlehdAction=lnkpdfcontentId=851373] Research Approach (Qualitative Vs Quantitative) The research approach can be either Qualitative or Quantitative, whereas both have there advantages and disadvantages in different scenarios. A quantitative approach consists of the knowledge which will measure, describe and explain all the processes, this type of approach are applies to scientific researches, where the data is taken as sample and to obtain the results. A Qualitative approach is the one in which knowledge is tested to investigate, interpret and to comprehend the processes. In the below given table a comparison can be seen. Research techniques As in previous it is stated by the researchers that there are various techniques adopted to get the most output of the research work. There fore as in case of this thesis which is based on Meta analysis the following listed steps will be followed. Literature Review Questionnaire based Survey Survey Analysis Conclusion / Result set Data Collection, Surveys and Questionnaire Data Collection Methods Data can be collected for the research purposes in two methods, primary data collection and secondary data collection, which are defined below: Primary Data In this kind of research the researcher has to collect all the information related to the topic, by interacting himself with different professionals related to the research topic. Data can be collected for various reasons, such as doing research from the organisations perspective, where the researcher has to carry out interviews and prepare questionnaires that are useful to obtain relevant information (). Primary research can be very hectic and time consuming as the researcher has to attain the knowledge from the people who are indirectly or directly related with the topic which is being researched. The reason for not to use primary research is because retail sector is very vast sector, and requires thorough understanding of its operations. Primary research need to be carried out when there are lack of information available through secondary research, which can be obtained thorough primary research by conducting telephonic interviews, mailed questionnaires or by focus group that is a nother reason why the researcher choose the method of secondary research to gather all the relevant information. [Quinton, S. and Smallbone, T. (2006), postgraduate research in business: a critical guide, London: Sage publications] If the research is of primary data collection then there are two types of observations, participants observations which is more emphasis on qualitative and the second is structured observations which is more attached to quantitative (). [Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill A. (2000), Research Methods for Business Students, 2nd Edition, England: Pearson Education] Participant And Structured Observations â€Å"Participant observation is a major research strategy which aims to gain a close and intimate familiarity within a group of individuals, and their practices† (wikipedia, 2007). Their intensive involvement is also required with the people in their natural environment. [online] Available at: [Accessed 10th dec 2006]. Collection Of Primary Data Use of interpersonal interviews and purposeful questionnaires are the most authentic ways of collecting data unlike observations and case studies, which makes the data more reliable and realistic. In collection of primary data use of questionnaires and interviews help to make the research more significant [Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill A. (2000), Research Methods for Business Students, 2nd Edition, England: Pearson Education]. In primary data collection the researcher has to interact with individuals or groups in order to obtain required data, which is not being collected before and is exclusive. [Quinton, S. and Smallbone, T. (2006), postgraduate research in business: a critical guide, London: Sage publications] Collection And Design Of Questionnaires Design of questionnaires should be precise and understandable. Before giving feedbacks everyone would like to know who you are (having contact numbers or address), what type of research you are doing and what will be the outcomes. The list of questions should appear clear and not very lengthy, try to make answerer not to work hard and except giving long answers they can carry on with simple ticks, or circles []. [Brent, primary data collection methods, [online], Available at: http://brent.tvu.ac.uk/dissguide/hm1u3/hm1u3text3.htm]. According to Bryman: (2003: pp. 161, Bryman, A. and Bell. E. (2003), â€Å"Business research methods†, New York: Oxford University Press.), it is necessary to keep in mind that the questions which are being prepared for the research, should be asked in different ways, such as: Personal questions, which include the private information from the participant like age, gender, etcetera (2003 pp. 161-164, Bryman, A. and Bell. E. (2003), â€Å"Business research methods†, New York: Oxford University Press). Factual question but this includes the information about others. Informer factual questions which includes the information other then private. Questions about what the respondent beliefs regarding certain aspects are. Question about attitudes are very common in asking for the research information (Bryman, 2003 pp. 161-164). Questions about topic mean that whether participant has the knowledge and experience regarding specific area or not (Bryman, 2003 pp. 161-164). [Bryman, A. and Bell. E. (2003), â€Å"Business research methods†, New York: Oxford University Press] Advantages And Disadvantages Of Primary Data Collection It is also advantageous if data is being collected by the use of primary research. Keeping in view that it could only happen if the sample questionnaire is simple and relevant, and there is no replication or irrelevancy in questionnaires. Disadvantages include the expensive procedure having time constraint. There is also a possibility of participants being bias when answering the questionnaire which may result in data being misinterpreted. Secondary Data Secondary data collection is a kind of research where there is no need for the researcher to be involved directly or physically with the live experiences. In this research the data is available in different forms such as printed material or electronic versions and contain all the past experiences, experienced by individuals or organizations. Comparatively secondary data collection is much easier and hassle free for the researcher who wants the research to be based on past experiences (Quinton, 2006: pp. 67-69). According to research compliance (no date) â€Å" Data, documents, records, or specimens that have been collected, or will be collected solely for non-research purposes and are in existence prior to the beginning of the study†. Resources Of Secondary Data For the collection of secondary data research there are various indefinite resources through which information can be collected. The researcher must be using the data which is being collected prior to do the research and may be used for some other reasons before. The most commonly resources from which data could be collected are: newspapers, magazines, articles, journals (manuals and e journals both), financial reports and some internal organisational documents could be a part of secondary data. Data Collection Techniques Techniques tell us by what means the data will be collected. Following section shows the methods used by the researcher to collect data. Multiple sources.( different societies) Survey data (statistical census reports and governmental data) Multiple Sources While working on this dissertation the researcher had gone through some of the Vendor based white papers to have more clear idea of the technology, also gone through the Research papers provided by the various researchers. Survey Data Survey data means what so ever information or data being collected prior to the research from any specific resources, like literature or review being published could be used as a part of secondary data collection Collection Of Secondary Data While the data is gathered from secondary sources, it is not always possible to fulfill all the desired results, that a researcher is expecting as these informations can be published for some other purposes, but have some-what relevance to the work on which researcher is working, so these datas can benefit the researcher (Saunders et al. 2000: p. 200). When gathering data from news papers, there is likelihood that news papers can have some printing mistakes, it is very rare that they publish some reports which might be proved wrong in future; even then news papers are and will always be a great resource of secondary data. With web links, some of the websites are amendable by anyone, in that case the research can be affected because data is not authenticated (Saunders et al, 2000). Advantages Of Secondary Data There is no doubt that Secondary research is more advantageous as described by Ghauri et al: (1995) [] that, in search of solution of the research questions and aims, secondary data enables the researcher to gather existing data through various resources, in desired amount of money and time. Secondary data take less time in analysis and give more chance to think about synergy. Whereas, Steward and Kamins: (1993) [] argues that in comparison with primary data secondary data is the most quickest way of gathering knowledge, and seems to be the more viable alternative and is of high quality in nature and easier to measure. [Ghauri et. al., (1995, citing in Saunders et al. 2000), research methods for business students, England: Pearson Education limited.] [Karmins and Stewarts, (1993, Cited by Saunders et al. 2000), research methods for business students, England: Pearson Education limited.] Disadvantages Of Secondary Data According to Denscombe (1998), â€Å"there are some disadvantages of choosing the secondary based research, the data, which is being used, may be of old version and not reflect objectives and research questions.† In other words this method can also be inappropriate because the data collected may have interpretations that are not exactly following the said topic aims. Resources Used Secondary based research is comprised on the data which is previously available via different acknowledged resources, therefore the researcher come across to different reliable resources in order to collect the relevant data such as: Resources for e-journals Business Process Management Journal, Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management ) Emerald (articles) Search Engines Google advance search. Google ( scholar search, online books and Literature) Books. Articles. Magazines. Professional in the field of Network Access Technology [Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill A. (2000), Research Methods for Business Students, 2nd Edition, England: Pearson Education] [Denscombe (1998, Citing by Saunders et al. 2000), research methods for business students, England: Pearson Education limited.] [Ghauri et. al., (1995, citing in Saunders et al. 2000), research methods for business students, England: Pearson Education limited.] [Bryman, A. and Bell. E. (2003), â€Å"Business research methods†, New York: Oxford University Press] [Brent, primary data collection methods, [online], Available at: http://brent.tvu.ac.uk/dissguide/hm1u3/hm1u3text3.htm]. [Quinton, S. and Smallbone, T. (2006), postgraduate research in business: a critical guide, London: Sage publications]

henry clays american system Essays -- essays research papers

Henry Clay’s American System 1832 Background: Following the War of 1812, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and John Quincy Adams helped form a new political agenda, which promised to meet the needs of America. It was a new nationalist United States. Henry Clay's "American System" was a neofederalist program of a national bank, a tariff to promote and protect industry’s, and financial improvements. Parties Involved: Henry Clays started as lawyer In Richmond, Virginia. In 1797 he quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his law practice. At the age of twenty-two, he was elected to a constitutional convention in Kentucky; at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of the United States Constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term during 1806 and 1807 in the ... henry clays american system Essays -- essays research papers Henry Clay’s American System 1832 Background: Following the War of 1812, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and John Quincy Adams helped form a new political agenda, which promised to meet the needs of America. It was a new nationalist United States. Henry Clay's "American System" was a neofederalist program of a national bank, a tariff to promote and protect industry’s, and financial improvements. Parties Involved: Henry Clays started as lawyer In Richmond, Virginia. In 1797 he quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his law practice. At the age of twenty-two, he was elected to a constitutional convention in Kentucky; at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of the United States Constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term during 1806 and 1807 in the ...

Feminist Performance and the Silence of Isabella in Measure for Measure

Feminist Performance and the Silence of Isabella in Measure for Measure      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In a chapter entitled â€Å"When Is a Character Not a Character?† Alan Sinfield presents the argument that the female figures in Shakespeare’s plays are not really â€Å"characters† at all, since they do not possess continuous and psychologically consistent interior lives. Although such roles as that of Desdemona, Olivia, and Lady Macbeth are written so as to suggest the presence of uninterrupted interior consciousness, this impression collapses under the pressure of the plot’s movement toward closure, which reveals the figures to represent nothing more than a â€Å"disjointed sequence of positions that women are conventionally supposed to occupy†(53). In order to preserve a textual organization that sustains a particular gender hierarchy, female characters abruptly shift from one stereotypical version of femininity to another without coherent linkages between them. For instance, despite their volubi lity throughout the early acts, at the conclusions of the plays, as Sinfield notes, Shakespeare’s women often â€Å"fall silent at moments when their speech could only undermine the play’s attempt at ideological coherence† (73). Thus, â€Å"the point at which the text falls silent is the point at which its ideological project is disclosed† (74). One of the most prominent of such silences appears at the end of Measure for Measure, where Isabella, â€Å"the bold woman silenced most spectacularly when marriage is proposed† (74), fails to react verbally to the Duke’s two offers of wedlock. According to Sinfield, this lack of response occurs because Isabella is suspended between two conventional female roles, and the disjunction between them makes manifest the agenda of the text’... ... The Stratford Season, 1992.† Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993): 477-83. Riefer, Marcia. â€Å"‘Instruments of Some More Mightier Member’: The Constriction of Female Power in Measure for Measure.† Shakespeare Quarterly 35 (1984): 157-69. Shakespeare, William. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 4th ed. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. -----. Measure for Measure. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. J.W. Lever. London: Routledge, 1965. Sinfield, Alan. Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading. Berkeley: U of California P, 1992. Sundelson, David. â€Å"Misogyny and Rule in Measure for Measure.† Women’s Studies 9 (1981): 83-91. Weil, Herbert S., Jr. â€Å"Stratford Festival Canada.† Shakespeare Quarterly 37 (1986): 245-50. Williamson, Marilyn L. The Patriarchy of Shakespeare’s Comedies. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1986.    Feminist Performance and the Silence of Isabella in Measure for Measure Feminist Performance and the Silence of Isabella in Measure for Measure      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In a chapter entitled â€Å"When Is a Character Not a Character?† Alan Sinfield presents the argument that the female figures in Shakespeare’s plays are not really â€Å"characters† at all, since they do not possess continuous and psychologically consistent interior lives. Although such roles as that of Desdemona, Olivia, and Lady Macbeth are written so as to suggest the presence of uninterrupted interior consciousness, this impression collapses under the pressure of the plot’s movement toward closure, which reveals the figures to represent nothing more than a â€Å"disjointed sequence of positions that women are conventionally supposed to occupy†(53). In order to preserve a textual organization that sustains a particular gender hierarchy, female characters abruptly shift from one stereotypical version of femininity to another without coherent linkages between them. For instance, despite their volubi lity throughout the early acts, at the conclusions of the plays, as Sinfield notes, Shakespeare’s women often â€Å"fall silent at moments when their speech could only undermine the play’s attempt at ideological coherence† (73). Thus, â€Å"the point at which the text falls silent is the point at which its ideological project is disclosed† (74). One of the most prominent of such silences appears at the end of Measure for Measure, where Isabella, â€Å"the bold woman silenced most spectacularly when marriage is proposed† (74), fails to react verbally to the Duke’s two offers of wedlock. According to Sinfield, this lack of response occurs because Isabella is suspended between two conventional female roles, and the disjunction between them makes manifest the agenda of the text’... ... The Stratford Season, 1992.† Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993): 477-83. Riefer, Marcia. â€Å"‘Instruments of Some More Mightier Member’: The Constriction of Female Power in Measure for Measure.† Shakespeare Quarterly 35 (1984): 157-69. Shakespeare, William. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. 4th ed. New York: Harper Collins, 1992. -----. Measure for Measure. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. J.W. Lever. London: Routledge, 1965. Sinfield, Alan. Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading. Berkeley: U of California P, 1992. Sundelson, David. â€Å"Misogyny and Rule in Measure for Measure.† Women’s Studies 9 (1981): 83-91. Weil, Herbert S., Jr. â€Å"Stratford Festival Canada.† Shakespeare Quarterly 37 (1986): 245-50. Williamson, Marilyn L. The Patriarchy of Shakespeare’s Comedies. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1986.   

Revenue Cycle Management Essay -- essays research papers

Synopsis - Integrated solution for Revenue Cycle Management and Medical Records Overview Physician practices are being called on to do more than ever before. Today’s physicians must treat more patients, document interactions more meticulously, wrangle with more complex managed care rules, keep track of an ever-expanding array of drugs, submit and track claims and pay rising malpractice insurance bills. In many cases, physicians must treat 20 percent more patients than they did five years ago to generate the same revenue. In the face of these burdens, some practices are struggling to remain financially viable. For many practices, the biggest impediment to meeting these challenges is continual administrative burden, a lack of automated clinical documentation, and inefficient practice workflow systems. Despite the dramatic advances in many areas of healthcare technology over the past several years, most physician practices—especially small and midsize ones—are still using the same manual and paper-based office management systems they’ve used for decades. With mounting pressure from insurers, government agencies, and patients, physician practices need to reexamine the ways they work and interact. As physicians see more patients and insurers demand reformed documentation for rapid processing of claims, the manual healthcare systems that were adequate in the past will become less and less able to meet new demands. The problem The paperwork burden among solo/small group physician...

The Hidden Key to E-Commerce Success

Order Fulfillment: The Hidden Key to e-Commerce Success By Fred R. Ricker and Ravi Kalakota n July 1995, a young Wall Street computer whiz named Jeff Bezos opened a bookstore offering more than one million titles yet virtually no inventory. His brainchild—Amazon. com—has grown since then from four employees operating out of a 400 square-foot garage in Seattle into an online company with a stock valuation greater than most Fortune 500 companies.His initial concept—a virtual bookstore designed to do business exclusively on The Internet offers a wealth of the Internet—was new business opportunities for obviously brilliant start-ups and established compaand well executed, nies alike. Yet while everyone as evidenced by wants a piece of the e-Commerce action, not everyone has laid the Amazon. com’s sucnecessary groundwork for success in gaining and cess. One of the most often overkeeping customer looked prerequisites is order fulfillattention and genermen t and distribution. Succeeding ating orders. n the e-Commerce age is every Yet the company’s bit as much about designing and success to date is executing these â€Å"blocking and dwarfed by the tackling† functions as it is about potential of its the latest technology. apparent ambition— to build the world’s most efficient consumer-direct orderFred R. Ricker is director of health-care supfulfillment system. ply chain strategy for Manhattan Associates Amazon. com enviInc. Ravi Kalakota is the director of the sions a â€Å"killer† supCenter for Digital Commerce and GCATT ply chain that can chair professor of electronic commerce at deliver virtually any Georgia State University.He is also the product—not just founder and CEO of e-Business Strategies. 60 Supply Chain Management Review I books— directly to customers better than its competitors. In fact, it took Amazon. com only one quarter after adding music to its offerings to become the N et’s leading music seller. The company currently is targeting the $150 billion pharmaceuticals market with a 40-percent stake in Drugstore. com. Today, the emphasis among more mature Web retailers like Amazon. com is shifting from marketing to fulfillment logistics—what happens after the rder is placed. Good fulfillment—taking the right product, putting it in the right box, shipping it, and gaining the customer’s approval on arrival—is a demanding task. We believe it is here—in the down-and-dirty details of consumer direct order fulfillment—that the epic battles for domination of the e-Commerce marketplace will ultimately be won or lost. The emergence of the e-Supply chain, a group of strategically aligned companies focused on delivering differentiable value, signals a shift in the nature of online competition.It involves rethinking traditional supplier relationships and the role of informationdriven fulfillment logistics. In the new network economy, establishing a sustainable e-Commerce position is as much about using the right fulfillment strategies to get your products or services to buyers as it is about having the right product at the right price. The key to success is being able to give customers what they want, Fall 1999 Illustration by Roger Roth when they want it, and how they want it—all at the lowest cost. That requires â€Å"real-time fulfillment† solutions.These rising demands have driven a three-phase evolution. First the e-Corporation, which focuses on creating and maximizing the potential of internal supply chains, evolves into e-Business communities, where distributors, suppliers, customers, and others are linked but not fully integrated. These communities then become the e-Supply chain, which requires business-process and technology synchronization across the entire chain. (Exhibit 1 depicts this progression. ) Unfortunately, much of the start-up planning for e-Commerce ventures a pplies old models to new enterprises.It assumes, for example, the existence of a brick-and-mortar support infrastructure for the fulfillment or the spontaneous development of that infrastructure. Like it or not, most e-Commerce retailers place their initial emphasis on the â€Å"exciting† areas: Web product development, traffic generation, dynamic or customized Web pages, transactions, and so on. Often, e-Commerce retailers give little thought to order fulfillment and distribution—a capability critical to the success or failure of Web commerce. Our research shows that the lack of an Fall 1999 ntegrated supply chain infrastructure or weaknesses in integrating multiparty logistics components can undermine the benefits of e-Commerce and hinder innovative responses to the competition. The e-Fulfillment Opportunity The Internet offers a rich new opportunity for direct consumer access, but it also raises new challenges. Web retailers find product fulfillment—picking a nd packing in very small quantities and shipping via parcel carriers—a particularly difficult activity. It often requires relying on third-party fulfillment vendors (a concept discussed later in this article) to do the job.But collaboration in fulfillment chains is no longer confined to conventional two-company alliances, such as between shipper and a logistics services provider. Today, groups of enterprises are banding together for a common purpose—to satisfy customer demand. A new form of competition is emerging: e-Supply chain vs. e-Supply chain. In the Internet book retailing war, for example, the competition is not only between Amazon. com and Barnes & Noble but also among groups of companies that make up the e-Supply chain anchored by each company. An e-Supply chain is, in effect, a virtual organizaSupply Chain Management Review 61ORDER FULFILLMENT process. ) Vendors could work within specified routing guidelines and still tender for trucks online in conjunction with other geographically close vendors to get full-truckload rates. Internet start-ups have the luxury of starting from scratch and defining their fulfillment infrastructure Business Process and Technology specifically for the products Integration being offered online. This is not the case for established Phase 3 E-Supply Chain companies like catalog companies or store-based retailers such as Wal-Mart, Borders, and JCPenney.These companies already have fulfillment and distribution networks designed to ship a variety of products in bulk quantities to hundreds of stores. They realize that they cannot layer home delivery on the existing infrastructure. The established companies must decide whether to extend their existing facilities for consumer-direct eCommerce or build a new set of fulfillment facilities tailored to low volumes and high-variety product mixes. The enlightened ones realize that they need to invent a new customer-driven fulfillment model that can extract enough costs o ut of the current model to justify home delivery costs.That new model, we believe, is an intercompany order-fulfillment and replenishment model. It utilizes business process synchronization to eliminate redundant processes among supply chain trading companies and to improve information sharing— doing away with excess labor, inventory, and holding costs. The design and implementation of such a coordinated and synchronized fulfillment infrastructure poses a major managerial problem. To shed light on this problem and provide a prescriptive roadmap, we address the following questions: What is the impact of current customer-direct business models on fulfillment strategies?What is the definition of consumer-direct fulfillment logistics? Why is having a consumer-direct model so important? What types of fulfillment strategies are currently employed in e-Commerce? What strategic business-process reengineering and synchronization steps can managers take when designing a consumer-direct fulfillment logistics strategy? Fall 1999 EXHIBIT 1 Evolution of the Network Economy Distributors Suppliers Internal Supply Chain Reengineering External Linkages Customers Phase 1 E-Corporation Logistics Providers Phase 2 E-Business Communities ion that encompasses a group of trading companies, all working together to slash costs and share profits. By optimizing not only their internal processes but also their mutual interactions, they realize the benefits of a truly integrated supply chain. This concept—business-process and supply chain synchronization—lays the basis for the next revolution in supply chain management. It takes supply chain integration to a new level of efficiency by requiring companies to focus on synchronizing business processes around standard interface points and upgrading these points as the industry evolves.Synchronization of these â€Å"touch points† eliminates costs associated with inefficient movement of goods, redundant processes, and excess inventory. In doing so, it promotes a dedicated collaboration of all supply chain trading partners—suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, wholesalers, thirdparty providers, transportation companies, and retailers. Through e-Commerce, redundant processes among trading partners (such as multiple accuracy audits, receiving-dock appointments, and inventory planning activities) can be eliminated.The immediacy and availability of the Internet, once security and data cleansing issues are worked out, fulfills the promise of true synchronization. To take just a few examples, if vendors can gain access to a publicly available schedule on the Internet and book their own receiving appointments, they no longer need to send requests for appointments and wait for responses. Retailers would not need to research late payments if their customers could download payment status directly from the retailer’s Web site. (At least two major retailers have already begun this 62 Supply C hain Management ReviewThe Logistics of Consumer-Direct Fulfillment Three forces are converging to create an explosion in consumer-direct business models: technology forces are making it possible, market forces are making it viable, and social forces are making it inevitable. Keep in mind, though, that consumers demand more than an interactive experience. They want delivery convenience and lower fulfillment costs. They need to be assured of fast and reliable delivery. The value the consumer places on timely delivery can affect the logistics network design significantly. Time is money,† and digital consumers of the 21st century don’t have the same tolerance levels as their analog-world ancestors. Today’s consumers are yearning for instant gratification as never before. Partners in the supply chain must improve their efficiencies—from order capture to fulfillment— to provide that gratification. The goal of consumer-direct business models is to let cust omers select and configure products and services interactively, get a price quote, and receive a committed delivery date online.Companies serious about satisfying customers online must substantially change their process to make consumer-direct retailing and manufacturing attractive to the consumer. Companies must re-evaluate the complete fulfillment business model—promotions, merchandising, product selection, pricing, supplier relations, technical management, distribution, returns, and post-sale service. Each of these areas demands new processes, skills, and approaches. To satisfy a consumer-driven marketplace, companies must move beyond the singular mentality of intracompany optimization.Instead, they must focus on how intercompany business process synchronization can transform consumer demands into consumer satisfaction. As with a single company, core competencies of each component of the virtual organization must be evaluated objectively to eliminate inefficiencies. Manage rs of that virtual organization will continue to reengineer best practices, while at the same time: Building replenishment programs based on consumers â€Å"pulling† the product through the supply chain from the manufacturer. Employing new forecasting methods that reflect total pipeline visibility.Investing collectively in technology and equipment to capitalize on market opportunities. The success of consumer direct fulfillment logistics models depends on the successful integration of Fall 1999 four key elements: order-fulfillment planning, product execution, distribution management, and crossapplication integration. 1. Order-Fulfillment Planning. Rising customer expectations and short fulfillment deadlines call for effective planning that breaks artificial boundaries and bridges the gaps between the consumer and the other players in the supply chain.Fulfillment planning must consider the entire planning process— from manufacturing, through distribution and transportat ion—within a single integrated model. Fulfillment planning involves evaluation of multiple planning strategies such as: Establishing a sustainable e-Commerce position is as Profitable-to-promise: Should I take the customer order at this time? Available-to-promise: Is inventory available to fulfill the order? Capable-to-promise: Does manufacturing capacity allow order commitment?Select the plan that best meets the desired customer-service levels considering transportation and manufacturing constraints. It’s important to plan backwards from customer priorities and fulfillment deadlines. Thus, to generate a feasible plan, the fulfillment-planning process needs to consider all supply chain constraints simultaneously. These include transportation constraints such as truck capacity and weight, use of alternate modes, and availability of downstream resources such as loading docks. 1 2. Production Execution.With the advent of modular designs, more and more production functions are being performed at dedicated warehouses and distribution centers. The typical activities include light subassembly and sequencing, kitting, merging, consolidation, packaging, and labeling. Timing of the final assembly often drives the production plan for subassemblies. The process starts with the master production schedule for the finished product. An MRP (Manufacturing Resource Planning) system explodes this schedule to derive when, where, and in what quantities various subassemblies and components are required to make each product.Production also includes componentreplenishment strategies that minimize the amount of inventory in the pipeline and coordinate product Supply Chain Management Review 63 much about using the right order-fulfillment strategies as it is about having the right product at the right price. ORDER FULFILLMENT hand-offs between the various parties involved. Timely replenishment of warehouses is critical because customers will no longer tolerate out-ofstock situations. 3. Distribution Management.Distribution management encompasses the entire process of transporting goods from manufacturer to distribution centers and then to final consumption point. The process also may include packing, document preparation, customs brokerage, and inventory and warehouse management. One of the most important innovations here is the integration of distribution with transportation planning and scheduling through a comprehensive supply can address by utilizing standardized information formats and communication points between trading partners.Distribution center inventory has to be integrated effectively with the customer contact system. In high-velocity retail settings like the Web, customers quickly become unhappy if the seller is out of stock for what is advertised as in stock. Accurate distribution center inventory, updated frequently, is essential to running an effective online business. A Framework for e-Commerce Fulfillment Strategies In the face of increasing competition, absence of pricing power, and shrinking operating margins, companies will succeed or fail based on the efficiency of their fulfillment strategies.Business analysts often focus on the number of orders a company generates on the Web as an indicator of its competitive strength. But a more accurate measure may be the company’s process for rapidly and efficiently translating the orders into fill-rates that satisfy and exceed customer expectations. This section presents a framework of evolving fulfillment strategies. It then illustrates that framework with a wide array of examples and derives implications and guidelines for management. The framework is based on two dimensions: the structure and the operation of fulfillment strategies.On the structure dimension, the strategies are classified as either centralized or distributed. In a centralized structure, all warehousing, pickup, packing, and shipping are operated in a central site, usually a distribution or logistics center. In a distributed structure, warehousing, pickup, packing, and shipping or delivery are located at different sites. On the operation dimension, the fulfillment strategies are either self-operated if the fulfillment process is operated by the company itself or outsourced if it is done by third parties or partners.All of these strategies, discussed below, have trade-offs regarding investment, inventory costs, and operational complexity. Strategy A. Distributed Delivery Centers Fulfillment through distributed delivery centers is an acceptable approach for companies that are just getting online or for those that have a delivery funcFall 1999 â€Å"Time is money,† chain execution solution. Transportation-management software spans the life cycle of the shipment and allows customers to view all of their shipments across a network of multimodal transportation providers. Distribution anagement also means providing users with easy access to shipping, tracking, and del ivery data. Reverse logistics is another function of distribution management. Faster product obsolescence and more generous warranties have escalated the number of returns. Reverse logistics not only encompasses damaged or returned goods but also products designed for remanufacture, hazardous materials, and reusable packaging. 4. Cross-Application Integration. To be effective, companies need to seamlessly integrate the three elements of fulfillment logistics described above.At present, this rarely happens. Most Web servers only have a sporadic connection to the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system like SAP’s R/3, which controls accounting, production, materials management, and distribution. Thus, when the user wants to know when a product will be delivered, the Web application often cannot tell that user what inventory is available in the ERP system or at the third-party warehouse. These are precisely the kinds of problems that business-process synchronization 64 Supply Chain Management Review nd digital consumers of the 21st century don’t have the same tolerance levels as their analog-world ancestors. tion in their stores. This approach minimizes the upfront investment and can be set up quickly. It also facilitates strategies such as â€Å"Buy Here/Pick Up There. † This strategy allows consumers to place an order by phone or online at one store location and pick up the merchandise at another. Though distributed delivery centers do have their advantages (like the obvious reduction in shipping costs), they also can experience certain difficulties.For one thing, controlling inventory for every center at an appropriate level may result in operational complexity and incur expensive inventory costs. In addition, in-store employees often are unfamiliar with warehouse picking and packing procedures. Further, high employee turnover can make picking and packing quality standards difficult to maintain. Yet another problem is scheduling. To mini mize conflict with customers who are shopping during the daytime, picking operations often are scheduled for off-peak shopping hours.Although this may appear to be an efficient use of resources, the delayed picking may force an additional day into the delivery cycle, since carrier pickups may take place before the completion of the current day’s picking and packing activities. Strategy B. Partner Fulfillment Operations Some online retailers are using the partner fulfillment model, which means they have no inventory, no shops, and no product brands. Fulfillment is performed entirely by partners. This approach has clear advantages from the standpoint of inventory-carrying costs. But there are some disadvantages as well.This has been evident in the experience of Peapod, an online grocery retailer that provides online shopping and home delivery services. Peapod discovered that its initial strategy of partnering with local supermarkets for fulfillment meant charging consumers high delivery costs of up to $16 an order. This pricing level made it virtually impossible to build a customer base. To attract more customers, the company has begun to dismantle some of its partnerships and move toward a distributed-delivery fulfillment model by establishing its own warehouses in selected markets.The introduction of a distributed-delivery model, however, has put a strain on the company’s financial growth. Peapod management estimates that each new distribution center requires a capital expenditure of roughly $1. 5 million plus operating expenses. Peapod expects a net loss at each facility during the first 12 to 18 months of operation. In the long run, however, the new centers should give the company higher overall margins as well as greater operating efficiencies. Fall 1999 Companies will succeed or fail based on the efficiency of their fulfillment strategies.Strategy C. Dedicated Fulfillment Center Today, many online retailers have established their own dedicate d fulfillment centers. These players include Amazon. com, BarnesandNoble. com, Dell Computer, Micro Warehouse, and Insight Enterprises. This approach is well suited to the book and computer industry, where the fulfillment centers can facilitate prompt delivery. The dedicated fulfillment center model reduces delivery costs for low-margin items. Using this approach, companies can measure expected delivery time in hours—not days.The tradeoffs of this approach are: Low or unpredictable sales volumes. This will result in high inventory-carrying costs. High up-front investment. Depending upon its warehouse setup and flexibility, a distribution fulfillment center can incur high costs. It may, for example, require major systems modifications, automated warehouses, and conveyors. This option, moreover, can add operational complexity to the product and information flows. Yet even though this approach increases the up-front capital investment, it can reduce long-term operating costs.Dec reased flexibility. The operation’s scalability is restricted to the existing warehouse infrastructure. This may make it difficult to meet the variability in demand inherent in some retail segments. Strategy D. Third-Party Fulfillment Centers (â€Å"Virtual Warehousing†) As companies struggle to manage unpredictable demand better, they are turning toward third-party fulfillment centers (3PFs), which can be thought of as virtual warehouses. Through this approach, companies can lease the skills and facilities needed for order fulfillment rather than owning them.Third-party fulfillment companies offer flexibility in accommodating wide swings in demand over short periods. They also help facilitate inventoryreduction initiatives such as just-in-time programs. Another advantage of 3PF is the limited changes that must be made to legacy information systems. This option provides a much more robust capability than in-store fulfillment and minimizes operational impact. It also co nverts much of fulfillment into a variable cost offset by eliminating warehouse and Supply Chain Management Review 65 ORDER FULFILLMENT store costs associated with the sale of the product.This strategy allows retailers to leverage their buying power and extend product selection into lines not currently offered in their stores. The primary drawback of 3PF is few existing national fulfillment companies can accommodate a wide range of products. Even more problematical, ceding control of this critical aspect of the business represents a major paradigm shift for retailers. Depending upon the service levels required by customers, multiple fulfillment centers may be necessary to minimize delivery time—and this increases costs and required stock levels. y clear that customers don’t just buy products; instead, they buy the â€Å"service envelope. † They are looking to enter into a complex relationship with the selling company. Given the new reality, companies do not crea te value for customers by merely offering varieties of products. Rather, they must devise a logistics fulfillment strategy that envelops the product and meets customer needs such as convenience, reliability, and support. The choice of a fulfillment strategy depends on whether a company elects to compete essentially on customer responsiveness or operating excellence.In either case, the fulfillment strategy must support the overall business strategy. To ensure that this happens, a company needs to complete the following steps: (1) assess the competitive environment, (2) select the fulfillment strategy, (3) achieve business-process synchronization, and (4) design and implement the necessary cross-application integration. Importantly, the fulfillment strategy must take full advantage of new planning, warehousing, and transportation technologies that can cut order fill times dramatically.Assess the Competitive Environment The first step in fulfillment-logistics design is assessmentâ€⠀that is, identifying the opportunities, strengths, and weaknesses that will influence overall performance and viability of the fulfillment strategy. During the assessment phase, a company must gather information on the competitive environment across these strategic variables: Effectiveness. What are customers’ priorities and how are they changing? How closely does the overall design address the stated and unstated requirements of customers?Consider likely changes in buying patterns, potential competitors, long-run cost pressures, and new technologies. Value differentiation. Why do my customers buy from me? What makes my value proposition unique compared to the competition? Do customers appreciate the value in my offering and can this be leveraged into differentiated pricing strategies? The first step toward value differentiation is to map your customer’s entire experience with your product or service. Do this for each important customer segment. Capital intensity. Sh ould we choose a capitalintensive, high fixed-cost strategy?Or a less capital-intensive, flexible strategy? The e-Commerce impact on working capital outlay differs from retailer to retailer. It depends on such factors as the existing logistical infrastructure (dispersion of warehouses, existing product flow, etc. ), the Fall 1999 Effective fulfillment strategy is dynamic, using multiple channels simultaneously to reach important customers. Strategy E. Build-to-Order The customized build-to-order model is an emerging fulfillment center strategy that extends beyond the traditional framework and adopts an integrating or boundary-spanning perspective.Companies working to coordinate build-to-order fulfillment logistics strategies need to: Synchronize and manage the entire flow of materials through a complex network of resources in their supply chains as opposed to simply managing inventory in warehouses. Turn their attention to maximizing the throughput, rather than focus on controlling fixed costs. Alter the material flow upstream quickly and proactively as demand and product mix change, rather than react to changes in customer demand at the end of the process.A fundamental requirement of fulfillment logistics is the dedicated collaboration of all supply chain trading partners to eliminate the costs associated with inefficient movement of goods, redundant processes, and excess inventory. Effective collaboration not only ensures that the order flows through smoothly but also provides two crucial capabilities: the ability to adapt to increasingly frequent changes in consumer tastes and e-Commerce technology and the ability to improve processes continuously.Designing the Right Fulfillment Strategy Design of the fulfillment strategy is central to the overall corporate strategy. It is becoming increasing66 Supply Chain Management Review nature of the products carried (for example, books Select the Fulfillment Strategy The second step in the design process is to select vs. produce), and the delivery demands of the an appropriate fulfillment strategy based on the findcustomer. Channel extendibility. Can the fulfillment design ings of the competitive assessment.Each fulfillment handle possible new products and services and strategy brings its own strengths, weaknesses, and incorporate new forms of customer interaction? trade-offs. These center on such issues as investEstablished companies must remain committed to ment, effectiveness, cost efficiency, operational coma portfolio strategy of customer interaction. This plexity, channel extendibility and scalability, and is based on the belief that valuable synergies exist risks associated with the business alliances. Exhibit 2, among online, catalog, and specialty retailing.To which summarizes the key characteristics of the five cite one example, EXHIBIT 2 online order desks A Summary of Five Fulfillment Strategies with sophisticated Type of Distinctive Major Potential Management walk-up interfaces Fulf illment Characteristics Strengths Weakness Challenges Strategy can be located strategically in Distributed delivery Distributed Easy start-up; Complex inventory Establishing sophisevery store so that centers Prompt delivery; management; ticated inventoryoperation sites; Operation in control.High inventory management sysSelf operated. shoppers can costs; tem; order products Unfamiliar with JIT inventory manand serve themwarehousing proce- agement. dures. selves. With an integrated portfo- Partner fulfillment Minimized up-front Service limited by Establishing orderDistributed lio strategy, estab- operations investment; partnership; routing system; operation sites; Less operational Low overall Maintaining stratePartner operated. ished companies responsibility; efficiency; gic alliance with can gain many Flexible delivery High inventory costs partners; new online cusarrangement; and inventory-man- Ensuring service Low shipping charge agement complexity. quality and reliability. tomers f rom the to customers. retail outlets. I n f r a s t r u c t u re Dedicated Avoids the higher High up-front Converting traditionCentralized inventory costs; investment; al warehousing to operation site; scalability.Can the fulfillment centers Easy to manage; Decreased flexibility. consumer-direct fulSelf operated. design handle Fast delivery; fillment; multiple products Reduced long-term JIT inventory mancosts of operation. agement. and a high shipment volume? Physical distribu- Third-party fulfillLeast investment; Few options Selecting the third Centralized No learning curve; available; party; tion can be a ment centers (3PFs) operation site; Third party No operational com- Risks in strategic Establishing intermajor logistical operated. lexity; alliances; organizational inforand administrative Limited changes to High operational mation systems with legacy systems; charge. the 3PF. headache. Online Minimized operaretailers are findtional impacts. ing that having to Build-to-order Spa ns both Minimum inventory; Over-customization; Synchronizing entire adapt their existcentralized â€Å"Pulling† ensured; Costs and resources flow of materials vs. ing infrastructure and distributed No stock inventory; of integration. anaging inventory; to handle small operations. Controlled fulfillAltering material ment. flow upstream vs. shipments going customer demand to millions of condownstream. sumers can be time consuming, complex, and expensive. The challenge is to keep each and every fulfillment strategies, is a managerial guide for customer satisfied while protecting the bottom determining which strategy is right for a company at line from erosion resulting from waste, errors, and a given situation. inefficiencies.How well do the available distribu- Achieve Business-Process Synchronization Intercompany business-process synchronization, tion strategies help accomplish that key objective? Fall 1999 Supply Chain Management Review 67 ORDER FULFILLMENT in its purest form, gives rise to the virtual organization in which all trading companies work together as one competitive supply chain entity—the e-Supply chain. In the virtual organization, each trading company shares its information and resources, which results in better planning and more efficient product movement.In making business-process synchronization a reality, companies typically will encounter these challenges: Design and Implement Cross-Application Integration Among the key objectives of intercompany collaboration are more sophisticated distribution services, such as frequent inventory replenishments, more customized packing of goods to reduce unpacking times, more creative packaging and labeling of goods to meet merchandising strategies, and more effective exchange of trading information in compliance with EDI standards.Achievement of these objectives demands an increased use of cross-application integration. Superior application integration in a supply chain is central to achievi ng superior fulfillment productivity and speed. An effective fulfillment-management system must have the ability to integrate with: 1. Integrated enterprise applications. Included here are the ERP systems that integrate the inventory management, marketing, and financial functions. 2. Integrated interenterprise systems. These are the supply chain management systems for transportation, order management, warehouse management, and demand planning.For instance, FedEx has integrated its logistics and transportation capabilities with the SAP R/3 system. For R/3 users, the solution will simplify every related process step from order entry through shipment and tracking by tightly integrating with FedEx. For FedEx, this capability creates a competitive barrier that other carriers have to overcome. 3. Distribution center management and warehouse management systems. Included among these solutions are facility management systems. Efficient management of a distribution center operation now requir es collecting information on customer orders, inbound shipments, products vailable on-site, storage locations, product weights and sizes, and outbound shipping data (including customer-specific shipping requirements, routing data, and carrier requirements). This information must be analyzed dynamically to determine the most efficient use of the distribution center’s labor, materials-handling equipment, and shipping and receiving areas. Today’s information technology revolution does not merely support new order-fulfillment strategies, it creates them. Technology Challenge. Intercompany businessprocess synchronization requires sophisticated technology applications.It can be difficult, however, to identify those systems that truly support this initiative. The Data-Sharing Challenge. Supply chain systems not only need to communicate with one another but also to integrate their business practice knowledge into each trading company’s business logic. The companies must work quickly and painlessly to integrate their trading partners’ knowledge into their own business applications. The Adaptability Challenge. All the information in the world cannot help if trading companies don’t have the flexibility to alter business processes as consumer demands change.In this regard, all trading companies face similar challenges. For instance, when UPS issues a rate update, thousands of customers must implement these changes by a specified date and time. Companies need to implement business systems that can be upgraded easily to move with the market. The Standardization and Compliance Challenge. When one major player in the supply chain decides to upgrade to a new technology or adopt a new technical functionality, the other players are challenged to synchronize accordingly.When there are thousands of â€Å"touch points,† or interface points, the challenge can become enormously complex. In a perfect world, all trading partners would migrate i n unison to the latest technologies to realize the maximum benefit. But it is not likely that an entire supply chain can or will do this at once. Thus, it is important to focus on synchronizing business processes around these touch points and upgrading them as the market evolves. 68 Supply Chain Management Review Acting in Unison for the Consumer Order fulfillment and replenishment is a core business process. What makes onsumer-direct eCommerce compelling to customers is not just the online shopping experience but on-time delivery, fewer fulfillment errors, extra service, and convenience. These are the things that customers value. When companies fall short in responding to those values, they risk alienating or losing customers as a result. Fall 1999 ORDER FULFILLMENT Many potential e-Commerce participants have underestimated the difficulty and importance of the fulfillment side of this market arena. They see fulfillment and distribution logistics as peripheral to their competitive s trategy.Companies need to recognize that such benign neglect is risky and wastes opportunities for competitive advantage. In response to pressures from powerful market trends and technological changes, they must inspect past practices, channel commitments, and vendor relationships vigorously. Effective fulfillment strategy is dynamic, using multiple channels simultaneously to reach important customers. Today’s information technology revolution does not merely support new fulfillment strategies, it creates them. Consumers interface with technology daily, raising the bar on what is expected on the fulfillment side.Meeting these rising expectations requires a conscious shift in fulfillment strategies and a technological infrastructure that ties together every aspect of the consumer-direct â€Å"fulfillment chain. † Interenterprise business-process synchronization is a key to success in this emerging real-time marketplace. Deep information exchange among supply chain partn ers brings opportunities to develop interenterprise strategies that become new sources of competitive advantage. Information integration allows companies to monitor daily trends, market conditions, product acquisitions, and planning functions.To achieve operational integration, manufacturers, distributors, and retailers must exchange information effectively with other supply chain participants at key interface â€Å"touch points. † Importantly, this includes providing real-time information to customers so they know the status of their order at any given moment. When all trading partners—including raw-material suppliers—perform all of the key supply activities in unison, they can make inventory decisions that lead to dramatically improved results.They can then share the rewards of producing the correct amount of the product, thereby lowering the cost of overproduction. Business-process synchronization also enables partners to respond quickly and easily to unplann ed consumer demand for items or for personalized and enhanced products—the kinds of things today’s Internet shoppers desire. The companies that employ business-process synchronization in the development of their consumerdirect order-fulfillment strategy will fulfill these consumer desires and emerge as the big winners in the Internet economy.Author’s Note Used as a reference for this article was a White Paper by Alan Dabbiere of Manhattan Associates titled â€Å"Business Process and Supply Chain Synchronization: Achieving Supply Chain Excellence Through Technology. † Footnote 1 Companies providing early versions of advanced planning capability include SAP’s Advanced Planning and Optimization (APO) engine, i2Technologies, Manugistics, and Logility. More sophisticated systems that integrate production planning and transportation planning are under development. 70 Supply Chain Management Review Fall 1999